Libor Kubín Takakuunzirai svondo rapfuura muenzaniso wekutanga kubva mubhuku rinonzi The Steve Jobs Journey naJay Elliot. Apuro-anonhonga anounza kwauri wechipiri wakapfupikiswa muenzaniso.
6. PRODUCT-ORIENTED ORGANIZATION
Chimwe chezvinonyanya kukosha zvesangano ripi neripi kuronga chimiro chayo kuti chizadzise zvinodiwa nebhizinesi. Mumakore ekutanga eApple, kambani yakabudirira pakubudirira kweApple II. Kutengeswa kwaive kwakakura uye kuchiwedzera zvakanyanya mwedzi wega wega, Steve Jobs yakava chiso chenyika chepamusoro-soro tekinoroji uye chiratidzo chezvigadzirwa zveApple. Seri kwezvose kwaiva naSteve Wozniak, uyo akanga achiwana chikwereti chiduku pane zvaaikodzera senyanzvi yehunyanzvi.
Mukutanga kwema1980, mufananidzo wakatanga kuchinja, asi manejimendi eApple haana kuona matambudziko aivepo, ayo akafukidzwa nekubudirira kwemari kwekambani.
Nguva dzakanakisa, dzakaipisisa dzenguva
Yakanga iri nguva iyo nyika yose yakanga ichitambura. Pakutanga 1983 yakanga isiri nguva yakanaka yebhizinesi hombe mune chero indasitiri. Ronald Reagan akanga atsiva Jimmy Carter muWhite House, uye America yakanga ichiri kuzununguka kubva mukudzikira kwakashata — rudzi rwakanyanya rwekudzikira uko kukwira kwemitengo kwakawanda, kunowanzosanganiswa nekudiwa kwakawanda, kwaisanganiswa nekudzvinyirirwa kwemabasa ehupfumi. Yakanzi "stagflation". Kudzoreredza inflation, Sachigaro weFederal Reserve, Paul Volckner, akamhanyisa mitengo yemubereko kusvika pakakwirira uye nekudzvinyirira zvinodiwa nevatengi.
Kunyanya kujeka, IBM yakamhara setani yezvidhinha muPC bhokisi rejecha iro Apple yakambove nayo yega. IBM yaive hofori yega pakati pemamidget mubhizinesi rekombuta yega. Nzvimbo ye "dwarfs" yaive yemakambani General Electric, Honeywell uye Hewlett-Packard. Apple yaisatombokwanisa kunzi diki. Kana vakamuisa pazasi peBMM, angave ari mukati mekukanganisa. Saka Apple yaive yakarongedzerwa kudzikiswa kune isingakoshi muzvinyorwa zvehupfumi?
Kunyangwe iyo Apple II yaive "mombe yemari" yekambani, Steve akaona nemazvo kuti kukwidza kwayo kwaizoderera. Zvakatonyanya kuipa yaive yekutanga kukanganisa kukuru iyo kambani yakanga ichangotarisana nayo: vatengi vaidzosera $7800 imwe neimwe yeApple IIIs itsva nekuda kwetambo yakaremara inodhura isingasviki masendi makumi matatu.
Ipapo IBM yakarwisa. Yakasimudzira PC yayo nyowani ine inokahadzika, inoyevedza kushambadzira inoratidzira Charlie Chaplin hunhu. Nekupinda mumusika, "Big Blue" (zita remadunhurirwa reIBM) yakakanganisa kunyoreswa kwekombuta yemunhu zvakanyanya kupfuura chero ani zvake angadai akaita. Kambani yakagadzira musika mutsva wakakura nekutora kweminwe yayo. Asi mubvunzo wakananga kuApple waive: Panyika yaigona kukwikwidza sei neiyo IBM ine mukurumbira musika simba?
Apple yaida "chiito chechipiri" chikuru kuti irarame, ndoda kubudirira. Steve akatenda kuti aizowana mhinduro muboka diki rekusimudzira raakakwanisa: sangano rakatarisana nechigadzirwa. Asi achafanira kutarisana nechimwe chezvipingamupinyi zvisingakundiki zvebasa rake, denho yaanozvigadzira pachake.
Ongororo yehutungamiriri
Mamiriro ekutonga paApple aive nedambudziko. Steve aive sachigaro webhodhi uye akatora chinzvimbo ichi zvakanyanya. Zvakadaro, pfungwa yake huru yaive paMac. Mike Scott akange asati aratidza kuve sarudzo chaiyo yemutungamiri wenyika, uye Mike Markkula, philanthropic investor akange aisa mari yekutanga kubatsira Steves maviri kutanga bhizinesi, akange achiri kushanda seMutungamiriri mukuru. Zvisinei, akanga achitsvaka nzira yokupfuudza nayo basa rake kune mumwe munhu.
Pasinei nokudzvinyirirwa kwose kwaiitwa Steve, aityaira kamwe chete pamwedzi achienda kumusasa weStanford waiva pedyo uye ndaimuperekedza ikoko. Panzendo zhinji dzemotokari ini naSteve takaenda, kuStanford nekumhiri, aigara achinakidza kuchovha. Steve mutyairi akanaka kwazvo, anotarisisa traffic mumugwagwa uye zviri kuitwa nevamwe vatyairi, asi akazotyaira nenzira imwechete yaakatyaira chirongwa cheMac: nekukasira, aida kuti zvese zviitike nekukurumidza.
Munguva yekushanya kwemwedzi nemwedzi kuStanford, Steve akasangana nevadzidzi vechikoro chebhizinesi- mungave muhoro diki yevadzidzi makumi matatu kana makumi mana, kana mumasemina akatenderedza tafura yemusangano. Vaviri vevadzidzi vekutanga Steve vakagamuchira muboka raMac mushure mekupedza kudzidza. Vaive Debi Coleman naMike Murray.
Pane imwe yemisangano yevhiki nevhiki nevatungamiriri vechikwata cheMac, Steve akataura zvishoma nezve kukosha kwekutsvaga CEO mutsva. Debi naMike vakabva vatanga kurumbidza Mutungamiri wePepsiCo John Sculley. Aimbodzidzisa mukirasi yavo yechikoro chebhizinesi. Sculley akatungamira mushandirapamwe wekushambadzira muma1970s izvo zvakazokunda PepsiCo musika wemugove kubva kuCoca-Cola. Mune inodaidzwa kuti Pepsi Challenge (ine Coke seanopikisa, hongu), vatengi vakavhara maziso vakaedza zvinwiwa zviviri uye vakapihwa basa rekutaura chinwiwa chavanofarira zviri nani. Zvechokwadi vaigara vachisarudza Pepsi mukushambadza.
Debi naMike vakataura zvakanyanya nezve Sculley semukuru ane ruzivo uye nyanzvi yekushambadzira. Ndofunga munhu wese aivepo akati mumoyo make, "Izvi ndizvo zvatinoda."
Ndinotenda Steve akatanga kutaura naJohn parunhare mangwanani uye akapedza vhiki refu achisangana naye mushure memavhiki mashoma. Kwakanga kuri muchando - ndinorangarira Steve achindiudza kuti vaifamba muCentral Park ine chando.
Kunyange zvazvo John zvechokwadi aisaziva zvachose nezvemakombiyuta, Steve akafadzwa zvikuru neruzivo rwake rwekutengesa, izvo, pakati pezvimwe zvinhu, zvakamutungamirira kumukuru wekambani huru yekutengesa sePepsiCo. Steve akafunga kuti John Sculley angave akakosha kuApple. Kuna John, zvisinei, kupihwa kwaSteve kwaive nezvikanganiso zviri pachena. Apple yaive kambani diki ichienzaniswa nePepsiCo. Mukuwedzera, shamwari dzose dzaJohn uye vashandi vebhizimisi vakanga vari kuEast Coast. Pamusoro pezvo, akadzidza kuti ndiye mumwe wevatatu vakakwikwidza pachinzvimbo chasachigaro wePepsiCo board of directors. Mhinduro yake yaiva aiwa mukuru.
Steve agara aine huzhinji hwehunhu hunomaka mutungamiri akabudirira: kuita sarudzo uye kutsunga. Chirevo chaakashandisa cajole Sculley chave ngano mubhizinesi. “Unoda kupedza upenyu hwako hwose uchitengesa mvura ine shuga here, kana kuti unoda mukana wokushandura nyika?” Mubvunzo wacho wakaratidza zvishoma nezveunhu hwaSculley pane zvawakaita pamusoro paSteve pachake—aigona kuona zvakajeka kuti iye ndega akagadzirirwa kushandura nyika.
John akazorangarira pave paya achiti, "Ndakangomedza mate nekuti ndaiziva kuti ndikaramba ndaizopedza hupenyu hwangu hwese ndichifunga zvandainge ndasuwa."
Misangano naSculley yakaenderera mberi kweimwe mwedzi yakati wandei, asi muchirimo cha1983, Apple Computer yakazove neMutungamiriri mutsva. Mukuita izvi, Sculley akatengesa manejimendi echinyakare bhizinesi repasi rose uye imwe yemhando yemhando yepasi rose yekutarisira kambani diki muindasitiri yaaiziva nezvayo. Uyezve, kambani ine mufananidzo wakaumbwa nevaviri vanofarira komputa vanoshanda mugaraji zuva rakapfuura nezuro uye iyo yakanga yava kutora indasitiri titan.
Kwemwedzi mishoma yakatevera, John naSteve vakawirirana zvikuru. Vezvekutengeserana vakapa zita remadunhurirwa rekuti "The Dynamic Duo". Vaiita misangano pamwe chete uye vakanga vasingaparadzanisiki, pamazuva okushanda. Pamusoro pezvo, vaivewo kambani yekubvunzana - John achiratidza Steve mafambisirwo ekambani hombe, uye Steve achipinza John mune zvakavanzika zvezvimedu nemafurati. Asi kubva pakutanga, Steve Jobs' master project, iyo Mac, yakabata mashiripiti kukwezva kwaJohn Sculley. NaSteve semutungamiri wescout uye mutungamiriri wevashanyi, haungatarisiri kufarira kwaJohn kutendeukira kumwewo.
Kuti ndibatsire John nekuchinja kwakaoma kubva kune zvinwiwa zvakapfava kuenda kune tekinoroji, izvo zvingave zvakaita senyika isinganzwisisike kwaari, ndakaisa mumwe wevashandi vangu veIT, Mike Homer, muhofisi iri padyo nenzvimbo yebasa yaJohny kuti aite semurume wake wekurudyi. uye kumupa ruzivo rwetekinoroji. Pashure paMike, rimwe jaya rainzi Joe Hutsko rakatora basa racho—zvichitoshamisa zvikuru nokuti Joe akanga asina dhigirii rokukoreji uye akanga asina kudzidziswa kwounyanzvi. Zvakadaro, aive 100% akakodzera basa racho. Ndakafunga kuti zvakakosha kuti John naApple vave na "baba" pamaoko.
Steve akabvumirana nevarume vepakati ava, asi akanga asina kunyanya kufara. Asi, ndiye chete akanga ari manyuko aJohane eruzivo rwokugadzira zvinhu. Zvisinei, zviri pachena kuti Steve aive nezvimwe zvinhu mupfungwa dzake kunze kwekuve murairidzi waJohn.
John naSteve vaiwirirana zvekuti dzimwe nguva vaipedzerana zvirevo. (Chokwadi, handina kumbozvinzwa, asi nyaya yacho yakava chikamu chengano yaJohn naSteve.) John zvishoma nezvishoma akagamuchira maonero aSteve kuti ramangwana rose reApple raive neMacintosh.
Steve naJohn havana kufembera hondo yakavamirira. Kunyangwe kana Nostradamus wemazuva ano akafanotaura hondo kuApple, isu taizofunga kuti icharwirwa pamusoro pezvigadzirwa: Macintosh versus Lisa, kana Apple kurwisa IBM.
Hatina kumbofunga kuti hondo yacho zvinoshamisa ndeiya yemarongerwo akaita nzanga.
Marketing chaos
Imwe yematambudziko makuru aSteve aive Lisa, Apple's proprietary komputa, iyo kambani yakaburitsa mwedzi iwoyo Sculley akahaiwa. Apple yaida kuputsa nhare yevatengi veBMM naLisa. Shanduro yakavandudzwa yeApple II, iyo Apple IIe, yakatangwawo panguva imwe chete.
Steve achiri kutaura kuti Lisa yakavakwa nehunyanzvi hwechinyakare, asi pakanga paine chipingamupinyi chakatokura chakaimirira mumusika: mutengo wekusuma waive zviuru gumi zvemadhora. Lisa anga achirwira chinzvimbo chake chakasimba kubva pakutanga paakasiya magedhi emujaho. Yakanga isina simba rakakwana, asi yakatowedzera kufashukira nehuremu uye mutengo wakakwira. Yakakurumidza kutadza uye yakanga isiri chinhu chakakosha mudambudziko raiuya. Zvichakadaro, iyo Apple IIe, ine software nyowani, zvirinani magirafu uye zviri nyore kudzora, yakava budiriro inokatyamadza. Hapana aitarisira kuti iyi yakawedzera kana kushomeka kukwidziridzwa kushanduka kuita hombe.
Chinangwa cheMac, kune rumwe rutivi, aive mutengi-mutangi, munhu. Mutengo wayo waisvika zviuru zviviri zvemadhora, izvo zvakaita kuti iwedzere kukwezva kupfuura Lisa, asi yaive ichiri kudhura kupfuura mukwikwidzi wayo mukuru, IMB PC. Uye kwaivewo neApple II, iyo, sezvazvakazoitika, yakaenderera mberi kwemamwe makore akati wandei. Zvino, Apple yaive nyaya yezvigadzirwa zviviri, Apple IIe neMac. John Sculley akaunzwa kuti agadzirise matambudziko navo. Asi aizozvigadzirisa sei kana nzeve dzake dzakazara nenyaya dzaSteve nezveMac, kubwinya kwayo uye kugona kwayo, uye chii chaizounza kumakomputa uye vashandisi veApple?
Nekuda kwekunetsana kwesangano uku, kambani yakakamukana kuita mapoka maviri, Apple II ichipesana neMac. Izvi ndizvo zvakaitikawo muzvitoro zvinotengesa zvigadzirwa zveApple. Mukwikwidzi mukuru weMac aive Apple II. Pakukwirira kwekukakavadzana, kambani yaive nevashandi ve4000, avo 3000 vakatsigira Apple II chigadzirwa mutsara uye 1000 vakatsigira Lisa naMac.
Kunyangwe kusaenzana kwevatatu-kune-mumwe, vashandi vazhinji vakatenda kuti John aive aregeredza Apple II nekuti aive akatarisana neMac. Asi kubva mukati mekambani, zvaive zvakaoma kuona izvi "isu vachipikisana navo" sedambudziko chairo, sezvo rakange rakavharwa zvakare nemhindu huru yekutengesa uye madhora bhiriyoni imwe mumaakaundi ebhangi eApple.
Iyo iri kuwedzera chigadzirwa portfolio yakaisa nhanho yezvinokatyamadza mafirework uye yakakwirira dhirama.
Nzira yemusika yaive yechinyakare yeApple II mumunda wemagetsi evatengi - yakatengeswa kuburikidza nevanogovera. Vatengesi vakatengesa makombiyuta kuzvikoro nezvitoro. Sezvimwewo zvimwe zvinhu zvakaita semichina yekuwachisa, zvinwiwa zvinyoro-nyoro, mota, vaive vatengesi ndivo vainyatsotengesa chigadzirwa kune vatengi vega. Saka vatengi veApple vaive vasiri vashandisi vekupedzisira, asi makambani makuru ekugovera.
Mukutarisa, zviri pachena kwatiri kuti iyi yaive isiriyo nzira yekutengesa yetekinoroji-yakanyanya mutengi chigadzirwa seMac.
Sezvo timu yeMac yakashanda nesimba kuti ipedze hurongwa hwekupedzisira hunodiwa pakatanga kunonoka, Steve akatora demo modhi parwendo rwevatori venhau. Akashanyira anenge maguta masere eAmerica kuti ape vanhu vanobudisa nhau mukana wokuona kombiyuta. Pane imwe nzvimbo, mharidzo haina kunaka. Paita kukanganisa musoftware.
Steve akaedza nepese paaigona kuzvivanza. Vatori venhau pavakangoenda, akafonera Bruce Horn, uyo aitungamirira software yacho, ndokumutsanangurira dambudziko racho.
"Kugadzirisa kunotora nguva yakadii?"
Mushure mechinguva Bruce akamuudza kuti, "Vhiki mbiri Steve akaziva kuti zvinorevei. Zvaitoda mumwe munhu mwedzi wese,asi aiziva Bruce semunhu aizvivharira muhofisi make ogaramo kusvika dambudziko rapera.
Nekudaro, Steve aiziva kuti kunonoka kwakadaro kwaizokanganisa chirongwa chekuburitsa chigadzirwa. Akati, "Vhiki mbiri dzakawandisa."
Bruce aitsanangura zvaizosanganisira kugadzirisa.
Steve airemekedza ari pasi pake uye akanga asina mubvunzo kuti akanga asiri kuwedzeredza basa raidiwa. Kunyange zvakadaro, haana kubvumirana nazvo, "Ndinonzwisisa zvauri kutaura, asi unofanira kutanga wazvigadzirisa."
Ini handina kumbonzwisisa kwaSteve kugona kunyatsoongorora izvo zvaigoneka uye izvo zvisina kubva, kana kuti akasvika sei pazviri, nekuti aive asina ruzivo rwehunyanzvi.
Pakamboita karunyararo Bruce achifunga zvinhu. Akabva apindura achiti, "Zvakanaka, ndichaedza kuita mukati mevhiki."
Steve akaudza Bruce kufara kwaakanga aita. Unogona kunzwa kufara kwekunakidzwa kwezwi raSteve. Pane nguva dzakadaro zvikuru kukurudzira.
Zvingangoitika mamiriro akafanana akazvidzokorora pakasvika nguva yekudya kwemasikati uye chikwata chemainjiniya esoftware aishanda mukugadzira sisitimu yekushandisa akasangana nechipingamupinyi chisingatarisirwi. Kwasara svondo rimwe chete panguva yekupedzisira yekuti kodhi idzokorore madhisiki, Bud Tribble, mukuru wechikwata chesoftware, akaudza Steve kuti havaizokwanisa kuzviita. Iyo Mac ichafanirwa kutumira ne "bugged", isina kugadzikana software yakanyorwa "demo".
Panzvimbo yekuputika kwaitarisirwa, Steve akapa ego massage. Akarumbidza chikwata chepurogiramu sechimwe chezvakanakisisa. Wese paApple anovimba navo. "Unogona kuzviita," akadaro nenzwi rinonyengetedza rekukurudzira uye vimbiso.
Uye akabva apedza hurukuro yacho vasati vawana mukana wekupikisa. Vakashanda mavhiki makumi mapfumbamwe emaawa kwemwedzi, kazhinji vachirara pasi pemadhesiki avo pane kuenda kumba.
Asi akavafemera. Vakapedza basa paminiti yekupedzisira uye pakanga pangosara maminetsi chaiwo kuti nguva yapera.
Zviratidzo zvekutanga zvekukonana
Asi zviratidzo zvekutanga zvehukama hwekutonhora pakati paJohn naSteve, zvinoratidza kuti ushamwari hwavo hwakanga huri kuputika, hwakauya munguva refu-kusvika kumushandirapamwe wekushambadzira waizoratidza kutangwa kweMacintosh. Inyaya ye1984-sekondi yeMacintosh TV ad yakatepfenyurwa panguva yeXNUMX Super Bowl Yakatungamirwa naRidley Scott, akave nemukurumbira nekuda kwefirimu rake chipande Runner akava mumwe wevatungamiri vakanyanya kukosha muHollywood.
Kune avo vasati vajairana nazvo, iyo Macintosh ad yairatidza hodhitori yakazara nevashandi vanoita sevasinganzwisisike vakapfeka mayunifomu ejeri vakatarisisa pachiratidziro chihombe chaive chiri kutaurwa nemunhu anotyisidzira. Chaive chiyeuchidzo chechiitiko kubva kune yekare George Orwell novel 1984 nezvehurumende inodzora pfungwa dzevagari vemo. Kamwe kamwe, mumwe mukadzi wechiduku anotaridzika zvakanaka akapfeka t-shirt nechikabudura tsvuku anomhanya ndokukanda sando yesimbi pachidzitiro, icho chinopwanyika. Chiedza chinopinda mukamuri, mweya mutsva unovhuvhuta imomo, uye vasungwa vanomuka kubva mundangariro dzavo. Izwi rinozivisa, "Musi waNdira 24, Apple Computer ichasuma iyo Macintosh. Uye iwe uchaona nei 1984 isingazove yakafanana 1984. "
Steve akada kushambadzira kubva panguva iyo agency yakamugadzirira iye naJohn. Asi Johani akanga achinetseka. Akanzwa kuti shambadzo yaipenga. Zvakadaro, akabvuma kuti "zvinogona kushanda."
Apo nhengo dzebhodhi dzakaona chiziviso, aisazvida ivo. Vakaraira sangano iri kuti ribatane nekambani yeTV kutengesa iyo Super Bowl ad nguva yakatengwa neApple nekuvadzosera.
Kambani yeTV yaitaridza kunge yaedza nekutendeka, asi yakange isina sarudzo kunze kwekuzivisa kuti yatadza kuwana mutengi wenguva yekushambadza.
Steve Wozniak anoyeuka zvakajeka maitiro ake. “Steve (Jobs) akandidaidza kuti andiratidze shambadzo iyi. Pandakazvitarisa, ndakati, 'Kushambadza kuya je zvedu.' Ndakabvunza kana taizoiratidza kuSuper Bowl, uye Steve akati bhodhi rakavhotera kupokana nazvo. "
Woz paakabvunza kuti sei, chikamu chemhinduro yaaigona kurangarira nekuti aive akatarisa pairi ndechekuti yaidhura $800 kumhanyisa ad. Woz anoti, "Ndakambofunga nezvazvo ndichibva ndati ndobhadhara half kana Steve abhadhara imwe."
Achitarira shure, Woz anoti, “Iye zvino ndava kuona kuti ndakanga ndisina njere. Asi ndakanga ndakatendeseka zvikuru panguva iyoyo.'
Izvo zvakazove zvisina basa, semutevedzeri wemutungamiri weApple wekutengesa nekushambadzira, Fred Kvamme, pane kuona kutsiva kusingafungidzirwe kweMacintosh ad yakaburitswa, akaita runhare rwakakosha rweminiti yekupedzisira iyo yaizodzika munhoroondo yekushambadzira. : "Nyoresa."
Vateereri vakafadzwa uye vakashamiswa nechiziviso chacho. Vakanga vasati vamboona zvakadaro. Manheru iwayo, vatungamiri venhau pazviteshi zveterevhizheni munyika yose vakasarudza kuti nzvimbo yekushambadzira yakanga yakasiyana zvikuru zvokuti yakakodzera mushumo wepepanhau, uye vakaibudisazve sechikamu chezvirongwa zvenhau zvehusiku. Ivo nokudaro vakapa Apple imwe nguva yekushambadzira inokosha mamirioni emadhora zvemahara.
Steve akanga akarurama zvakare kuomerera kupfungwa dzake. Zuva rakatevera kutepfenyura, ndakamutyaira ndichitenderera nechitoro chemakombiyuta muPalo Alto mangwanani-ngwanani, uko kwakanga kune mudungwe wakareba wavanhu vakamirira kuti chitoro chivhurwe. Zvakanga zvakafanana muzvitoro zvemakombiyuta munyika yose. Nhasi, vazhinji vanofunga kuti nzvimbo yeTV ndiyo yakanakisa yekutengesa yakambotepfenyurwa.
Asi mukati meApple, kushambadza kwakanganisa. Izvo zvakangowedzera shanje iyo vanhu vari mumapoka eLisa neApple II vakanzwa vakananga kuMacintosh itsva. Kune nzira dzekubvisa rudzi urwu rwechigadzirwa godo uye godo munzanga, asi dzinofanirwa kuitwa nekukurumidza, kwete paminiti yekupedzisira. Kana manejimendi eApple akawana dambudziko chairo, vanogona kushanda kuti munhu wese ari mukambani anzwe kudada neMac uye kuda kuiona ichibudirira. Hapana ainzwisisa kuti tension yainge iri kuitei kuvashandi.
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ndatenda nemanongedzo, asi ndinoda kuva nazvo pabookstore :)
Tinodawo izvozvo. Asi Apple iri kukanganisa chaizvo. Nhoroondo yeJobs yakabvumidzwa mukati memaawa makumi maviri nemana, tanga takamirira Rwendo rwaSteve Jobs kweinopfuura vhiki.
Isu tinofungawo, zvinosuruvarisa, Apple yave kubvumidza mabhuku kwenguva refu isati yamboitika. Vanhu vakawanda vakatonyunyuta. Nehurombo, isu hatizozvifurira, nepo basa rekutanga rakabvumidzwa nezuva raitevera.